A national study of Indigenous youth homelessness in Canada.

OBJECTIVE: This study was designed to address the need for more detailed information about Indigenous homeless youth, a group overrepresented in the homeless population, using a national-level data set. STUDY DESIGN: The study used a cross-sectional, self-report survey design. METHODS: Surveys were used to gather demographic, mental health, and quality of life data from a sample of 1103 Canadian youth accessing homeless services with data collected in 2015. This article focused on the 332 Indigenous respondents, using both comparisons with non-Indigenous youth and within-group comparisons across key domains. RESULTS: These findings suggested greater mental health and addiction challenges among Indigenous homeless youth compared with non-Indigenous respondents as well as evidence of a more problematic role of child protection. Within-group comparisons suggested that female and sexual and gender minority youth are particularly at risk among Indigenous youth with some added child protection and justice implications for reserve-raised youth. Child protection history and street-victimization were particularly relevant to the current distress levels. CONCLUSION: Overall, such findings reinforce calls for Indigenous-specific interventions for these populations-including policy-driven prevention initiatives to address the legacy of colonization.

Characteristics of Mothers and Infants Living in Homeless Shelters and Public Housing in New York City.

Introduction Homelessness can result in poor health. The number of families with children living in NYC homeless shelters increased 55% from 2008 to 2014. Half of children living in shelter in 2014 were younger than 6 years old. We compared demographics and health outcomes of mothers and infants residing in NYC homeless shelters to those residing in public housing in this cross-sectional study. Methods Addresses of NYC Department of Homeless Services shelters and NYC Housing Authority (NYCHA) developments were matched to NYC Department of Health birth certificate data for the years 2008-2013. Sociodemographic and health characteristics of newborns residing in shelters were compared to newborns in NYCHA housing using Chi square tests. Results Mothers residing in shelters were younger, more likely to be black and less likely to be Hispanic, more likely to have been born outside NYC and reside in the Bronx. Babies born to mothers living in shelter were more likely to have low birth weight (< 2500 g), be born preterm (< 37 gestational weeks), require assisted ventilation immediately following delivery, have a NICU admission, and use Medicaid. They were less likely to breastfeed within 5 days of delivery and be discharged to their residence. Discussion Homeless mothers and infants had poorer health outcomes compared with those living in public housing. Understanding the health disparities of homeless infants can provide guidance for developing future policies and research initiatives, which may be used to inform the development of new policies to improve health outcomes of homeless infants and their mothers.

Socioeconomic deprivation and the development of neuropsychological functions: A study with "street children" in Ecuador.

Socioeconomic status (SES) is known to have a considerable influence on the development of neuropsychological functions. In particular there is strong evidence for less efficient development of prefrontal-cortex-related functions in children raised in low-SES households. "Street children" are a common feature of low SES in many low- and middle-income countries, and some researchers have suggested that the unique life experiences of street children may drive their neurocognitive development. This study compares a group of 36 former street children in Quito, Ecuador with a control group of 26 never street-connected schoolchildren. All children were assessed with a range of neuropsychological tests. Although the street children group performed significantly below the level of the control group on all measures, they did not demonstrate a generalized lower ability. By controlling the effects of fluid intelligence it was found that there are relatively independent effects on visuospatial ability and executive planning ability. Furthermore, the executive function test scores in general are significantly less affected than the other cognitive functions and may be temporary effects caused by recent substance abuse within the street child sample. The findings generally support results from other countries suggesting that low SES is associated with negative effects on neuropsychological development. However, they also suggest that the local social and economic context, such as in the case of street children, might mitigate the harmful effects of low SES on the development of some executive functions.

Prevalence and Correlates of Youth Homelessness in the United States.

PURPOSE: Unaccompanied youth homelessness is a serious concern. Response, however, has been constrained by the absence of credible data on the size and characteristics of the population and reliable means to track youth homelessness over time. We sought to address these gaps. METHODS: Using a nationally representative phone-based survey (N = 26,161), we solicited household and individual reports on different types of youth homelessness. We collected household reports on adolescents aged 13-17 and young adults aged 18-25, as well as self-reports from young adults aged 18-25. Follow-up interviews with a subsample (n = 150) provided additional information on youth experiences and enabled adjustment for inclusion errors. RESULTS: Over a 12-month period, approximately 3.0% of households with 13- to 17-year-olds reported explicit youth homelessness (including running away or being asked to leave) and 1.3% reported experiences that solely involved couch surfing, resulting in an overall 4.3% household prevalence of any homelessness, broadly defined. For 18- to 25-year-olds, household prevalence estimates were 5.9% for explicitly reported homelessness, 6.6% for couch surfing only, and 12.5% overall. The 12-month population prevalence estimates, available only for 18- to 25-year-olds, were 5.2%, 4.5%, and 9.7%, respectively. Incidence rates were about half as high as prevalence rates. Prevalence rates were similar across rural and nonrural counties. Higher risk of homelessness was observed among young parents; black, Hispanic, and lesbian, gay, bisexual, or transgender (LGBT) youth; and those who did not complete high school. CONCLUSIONS: The prevalence and incidence of youth homelessness reveal a significant need for prevention and youth-centric systems and services, as well as strategies to address disproportionate risks of certain subpopulations.

Are Parental Relationships Always Protective? A Social Network Analysis of Black, Latino, and White Homeless Youth and Sexual Risk-Taking Behaviors.

Black and Latino homeless youth are at high risk of HIV, and yet no HIV prevention interventions have been specifically designed for these groups. Given the success of parent-child intervention programs for housed Black and Latino youth, this study examined parental relationships that could be leveraged for future HIV prevention efforts targeting minority homeless youth, specifically the associations among presence of parents in social networks, parental influence, and parental support. A convenience sample of Black, Latino, and White homeless youth (N = 754) was recruited from three drop-in centers in Los Angeles. Participants completed a computerized, self-administered questionnaire and an interviewer-led personal social network interview. Multivariate logistic regression models assessed the association between parental relationships and sexual risk behaviors. Forty-five percent (n = 338) of youth identified a parent in their network. Having at least one parent in their network was significantly associated with decreased odds of using a condom for Black and White youth. Black youth were almost four times more likely to report being tested for HIV if they spoke to their parents about sex, whereas Latino youth were 91 % less likely to report being tested for HIV if they talked with their parents about sex. Black youth who identified a parent as a positive influence (i.e., promoting condom use or discouraging multiple partners) were almost four times more likely to have used a condom during their last sexual encounter. Parent-child HIV prevention interventions targeting homeless youth would benefit from culturally tailored adaptations.

Child-street migration among HIV-affected families in Kenya: a mediation analysis from cross-sectional data.

Within Kenya, an estimated quarter of a million children live on the streets, and 1.8 million children are orphaned. In this study, we analyze how HIV contributes to the phenomenon of child-street migration. We interviewed a random community sample of caregiving women (n = 1974) in Meru County, Kenya, using a structured questionnaire in summer 2015. Items included reported HIV prevalence of respondent and her partner, social support, overall health, school enrollment of biologically related children and whether the respondent has a child currently living on the streets. Controlling for alcohol use, education, wealth, age and household size, we found a positive-graded association between the number of partners living with HIV and the probability that a child lives on the street. There was little difference in the odds of a child living on the street between maternally affected and paternally affected households. Lower maternal social support, overall health and school enrollment of biologically related children mediated 14% of the association between HIV-affected households and reporting child-street migration. Street-migration of children is strongly associated with household HIV, but the small percentage of mediated effect presents a greater need to focus on interactions between household and community factors in the context of HIV. Programs and policies responding to these findings will involve targeting parents and children in HIV-affected households, and coordinate care between clinical providers, social service providers and schools.

Youth Homelessness: Prevalence and Associations with Weight in Three Regions.

This study investigated the utility of the Youth Risk Behavior Survey (YRBS) to document associations between homeless status and weight while estimating the prevalence of youth homelessness in three regions. A school-based survey, the YRBS includes youths who have been difficult to involve in past research. Analysis of 2011 YRBS data produced population-weighted estimates of youth homelessness prevalence separately for Connecticut, Delaware, and Philadelphia. Public high school students anonymously reported their housing status, height, and weight on the YRBS. Height and weight were converted to body mass index (BMI) percentile-for-age scores. Homelessness was associated with higher BMI percentile scores for youths compared with nonhomeless peers. Associations between BMI percentile and different forms of homelessness (homeless with family, unaccompanied homeless without family) were explored at each site. Estimates of one-month homelessness prevalence ranged from 3.9 percent to 5.9 percent at each site. Homelessness, especially family homelessness, is associated with risk for higher BMI. The YRBS is an informative tool for estimating the prevalence of youth homelessness, expanding on what is known through other, more commonly used methods.

Aboriginal street-involved youth experience elevated risk of incarceration.

OBJECTIVES: Past research has identified risk factors associated with incarceration among adult Aboriginal populations; however, less is known about incarceration among street-involved Aboriginal youth. Therefore, we undertook this study to longitudinally investigate recent reports of incarceration among a prospective cohort of street-involved youth in Vancouver, Canada. STUDY DESIGN: Prospective cohort study. METHODS: Data were collected from a cohort of street-involved, drug-using youth from September 2005 to May 2013. Multivariate generalized estimating equation analyses were employed to examine the potential relationship between Aboriginal ancestry and recent incarceration. RESULTS: Among our sample of 1050 youth, 248 (24%) reported being of aboriginal ancestry, and 378 (36%) reported being incarcerated in the previous six months at some point during the study period. In multivariate analysis controlling for a range of potential confounders including drug use patterns and other risk factors, Aboriginal ancestry remained significantly associated with recent incarceration (adjusted odds ratio [AOR] = 1.44; 95% confidence interval [CI]: 1.12-1.86). CONCLUSIONS: Even after adjusting for drug use patterns and other risk factors associated with incarceration, this study found that Aboriginal street-involved youth were still significantly more likely to be incarcerated than their non-Aboriginal peers. Given the established harms associated with incarceration these findings underscore the pressing need for systematic reform including culturally appropriate interventions to prevent Aboriginal youth from becoming involved with the criminal justice system.

Feasibility of shelter-based mental health screening for homeless children.

Homeless children are known to be at risk for mental health and behavioral disorders due to housing instability and family and environmental risk factors, such as domestic violence. However, homeless children seldom receive screening for mental health and behavioral disorders with validated instruments. Moreover, few examples exist of programs that integrate outreach, screening, referral to appropriate diagnostic and therapeutic services, and care coordination. We describe early results of the Medical Home for Homeless Children Project, whose nurse care coordinators work with homeless families to conduct standardized nursing assessments that include evidence-based screening for child mental health and behavioral disorders with referral and case management for mental and behavioral health services. Screening identified a group of children with mental health issues that warranted referral, and many of those referrals were successfully completed.

Alternative tobacco product use and smoking cessation among homeless youth in los angeles county.

INTRODUCTION: Approximately 70% of homeless youth smoke cigarettes, but their use of alternative tobacco products (ATPs) is unknown. This paper reports on ATP use among past-month smokers in Los Angeles County, including whether it differs by demographic characteristics, homelessness severity, past-year quit attempts, and readiness to quit smoking. Given the growing popularity of e-cigarettes, we also report on perceptions of harm and reasons for using this product. METHODS: We surveyed 292 unaccompanied homeless youth who were randomly sampled from street sites. Participants had smoked at least 100 cigarettes during their lifetime and 1 cigarette during the past month. RESULTS: Seventy-two percent of youth reported past-month ATP use (e-cigarettes = 51%; little cigars/cigarillos = 46%; hookah = 31%; other smokeless tobacco product = 24%; chewing tobacco/moist snuff = 19%). Current ATP use was unrelated to most demographic characteristics or having a past-year quit attempt. However, youth who planned to quit smoking in the next 30 days were significantly less likely to report current use of hookahs, other smokeless tobacco products, or e-cigarettes. Among lifetime e-cigarette users, the most common reasons for use included not having to go outside to smoke (38%) and being able to deal with situations or places where they cannot smoke (36%); it was less common to report using e-cigarettes to quit smoking (17%-18%). DISCUSSION: Dual use of ATPs among homeless youth smokers is common and is more likely among those who have no immediate plans to quit smoking. Effective and easily disseminable strategies for reducing all forms of tobacco use among homeless youth are urgently needed.

It's called "Going out to play": a video diary study of Hmong girls' perspectives on running away.

How do Hmong immigrant adolescent girls decide to run away, return home, leave again, or stay home? Video diaries by 11 sexually exploited runaway Hmong girls, ages 13-16, revealed four themes: "fighting restrictions," or resisting family and cultural expectations and desires to be like other American teens; "not running away, going out to play," which captured impulsive decision making; "unrestrained partying," which described runaway experiences but minimized the dangers faced; and "trying to change," or returning home because of family bonds and wanting to "be someone good." Given their limited ability to anticipate risks, interventions should focus on runaway prevention initiatives for Hmong families and teens.

BeLieving in Native Girls: characteristics from a baseline assessment.

BeLieving In Native Girls (BLING) is a juvenile delinquency and HIV intervention at a residential boarding school for American Indian/Alaska Native adolescent girls ages 12-20 years. In 2010, 115 participants completed baseline surveys to identify risk and protective factors. Initial findings are discussed regarding a variety of topics, including demographics and general characteristics, academic engagement, home neighborhood characteristics and safety, experience with and perceptions of gang involvement, problem-solving skills, self-esteem, depression, sexual experiences and risk-taking behaviors, substance abuse, and dating violence.

Changelings: transformative perceptions of San José's street children, 1965-1981.

Between 1965 and 1981, Costa Ricans changed their perceptions of which characteristics they thought defined appropriate urban childhoods. By 1981, the model of a modern, urban Costa Rican child was that of a child who attended school, did not work on the streets, and played in specifically designated places. Children who did not fit this mold began, in the late 1970s and early 1980s, to be viewed as dangerous to society and as evidencing social pathology. Whereas children who worked on the streets during the 1960s were considered part of the urban landscape, and their childhoods, though difficult, were not perceived as deviant, these same children, two decades later, were viewed as marginal and problematic. To trace this change, this article focuses on the changing perceptions about children on the streets that writers for and public contributors to La Nación, one of the preeminent Costa Rican newspapers, show during the sixteen-year period under analysis.

A cidade e seus sinais: a construção de uma pesquisa com as crianças do malabares

Este texto traz alguns apontamentos e caminhos teórico-metodológicos presentes na pesquisa realizada com crianças e jovens que praticam o malabares nos sinais de trânsito de uma grande metrópole. O estudo propôs como objetivo buscar compreender como esses sujeitos vivenciam suas experiências no cotidiano do trabalho explorado. Para tal, utilizou-se à etnografia como metodologia de aproximação dessa realidade, permitindo novos olhares e interpretações nas relações estabelecidas entre as crianças e os jovens, os transeuntes e os motoristas no tempo-espaço de suas ações no contexto do malabares nos sinais.

This work presents some pointers and theoretical-methodological paths presented in the research performed with children and young people who practice juggling at traffic lights in a huge metropolis. The study has proposed as purpose to understand how those people live out their experiences in daily work explored. To this end, we used ethnography as a method of approximation of this reality, allowed new views and interpretations in the relationship between children and young people, pedestrians and drivers in the space-time of their actions in the context of juggling at traffic lights.

Discrimination and mental health problems among homeless minority young people.

OBJECTIVE: We examined the associations among perceived discrimination, racial/ethnic identification, and emotional distress in newly homeless adolescents. METHODS: We assessed a sample of newly homeless adolescents (n=254) in Los Angeles, California, with measures of perceived discrimination and racial/ethnic identification. We assessed emotional distress using the Brief Symptom Inventory and used multivariate linear regression modeling to gauge the impact of discrimination and racial identity on emotional distress. RESULTS: Controlling for race and immigration status, gender, and age, young people with a greater sense of ethnic identification experienced less emotional distress. Young people with a history of racial/ethnic discrimination experienced more emotional distress. CONCLUSION: Intervention programs that contextualize discrimination and enhance racial/ethnic identification and pride among homeless young people are needed.

A Cultural and Gender Perspective on Marginal Children on the Streets of Kenya

How to best analytically position street children in comparison to others in various social circumstances requires a robust theoretical discussion.The very concept of street children can be contested as essentialized; serving to mask social and behavioral differences; especially those between boys and girls.The limited perspective of the street child as a victim and thereby psychologically vulnerable is also contested. Cases considered here serve to illustrate that all children on the streets share a common experience of social marginality.This is experienced by them as children; as members of the powerless jua kali (hot sun) workers class; and in their isolation from cultural institutions. Some of these children however; especially girls; are vulnerable and clearly victims of harsh social circumstances. A theoretical perspective is put forth to explain a relative social marginality for women; taking into account increased social class differences and changing cultural values since 1900. Girls on the streets are therefore best understood as being at the bottom of a gendered hierarchy in Kenya. Concepts like the street child and the vulnerable child in current use as master labels serve to hide agency reported here even on the margins of Kenya's cultural; social; and gender hierarchy. An ethnographic method is put forth as a useful strategy for discovering strategies for success on the streets. To specifically evaluate gender; follow up research with adults previously described as children (1991) is combined with new material from children in Nairobi and the smaller city of Nyeri in central Kenya. A theoretical perspective from general anthropology is offered as one way to better align studies of children with broader theoretical concerns in anthropology and related disciplines